Literacy Development - 2585 Words

NAME: Keneisha Blair LECTURE: Ms. Palmer I.D#: SW9011/11 COURSE WORK #: 3 Emergent literacy According to May (1990, p. 59) emergent literacy is the process of learning. It is a product of children’s explorations with concepts and conventions about language with which they are familiar. Two Early Literacy behaviours in young children * Pretend reading * Scribbling Two activities that can be used to enhance and cater for pretend reading Young children imitate what they see adults do in society. On such thing is reading. Children will take up any form of literature and pretend that they are reading. To enhance and cater for this behaviour parents and teachers can: Activity 1 The teacher or parent should ensure†¦show more content†¦This is so because if students have to pause to decode words in each sentence then the reading will not be fluent. According to Balsiger, fluent readers have highly automatic word recognition, and the skills to sound out unfamiliar words; dysfluent readers make frequent mistakes, have poor word recognition, skip words, substitute similar-appearing words, and struggle with unfamiliar words. Reading speed refers to the rate at which pupils read. It should be noted that both children and adults vary their reading speed depending on how difficult the text is and its purpose. But, extremely slow or fast reading is often a characteristic of a dysfluent reader. Finally, prosody is the ability to orally read sentences expressively. This incorporates proper phrasing and intonation. Dowhower (1991, p. 166) stated that prosody is the ability to read in expressive rhythmic and melodic patterns. Kelly to give According to Sheakoski (2012), a strategy that can be used to improve fluency in reading is repeat reading. Students can increase fluency skills using the repeated reading strategy during which they read a short passage repeatedly. It should be noted that fluency is more than just pronouncing words correctly, it also encompasses the process of fully and smoothly conveying what the text is about. The ability to read fluently is a predictor of comprehension. This is mainly because the more fluently one reads the easier it is for him or herShow MoreRelatedDevelopment Of Knowledge, Literacy, And Literacy1981 Words   |  8 PagesDigitization and literacy Most simply stated literacy is considered as the ability to read and write. However, with the development of knowledge, literacy became more complex, it evolved into a cognitive process which involves critical interpretation of information that are represented through spoken and written words. According to dr. Kirk Panneton, it is an important intellectual, cultural and electronic capability† (1). As the dr. Pannton’s view of literacy involves digital capabilities ofRead MoreLiteracy Skills And Development Of Literacy Training Programs907 Words   |  4 PagesHealth Literacy Many individuals in the United States are struggling with reading, writing, and comprehension. This is not only necessary for daily life in today’s world, but imperative on the healthcare front. â€Å"Health literacy continues to be a major problem despite public and private efforts at all levels to address the issue through testing of literacy skills and development of literacy training programs† (Bastable, 2014, p. 256). â€Å"By focusing on health literacy issues and working togetherRead MoreAdult Literacy and Community Development Essay1724 Words   |  7 PagesMy vision in my work with VOC this year is to explore the intersection of adult literacy and community development. Through research, I hope to learn more about the connection between research and practice in writing for adult learners; through working with a community based organization I hope to deepen my knowledge and understanding of the impact and challenges of working in a literacy program and how this translates into overall goals of improving livelihoods and building a stronger communityRead MoreLiteracy Influences Child Development, Social Interaction And Development Of The Brain978 Words   |  4 PagesLiteracy influences child development, social interaction and the ability to overcome obstacles a positive aspect. If you are reading this, at some point in time someone, somewhere taught you to read. Literacy in small children can be very beneficial to the growth and development of the brain. â€Å"Decades of research prove that when young children are surrounded by literature-rich environments are spoken to and read to frequently, have the skills needed to start school and are appropriately supportedRead MoreDevelopment Of Quality Literacy Programs For Children And Parents1091 Words   |  5 Pagesin health, child development, and mental health. The main focus is on the development of infants and toddlers. The main goal of this organization is to guarantee that all ba bies and toddlers are given a strong start in life. Promoting an understanding about key issues that affect young children and their families. Key issues include infant mental health, child care, early language and literacy development, early intervention and the impact culture has on early childhood development (About Us, 2016)Read MoreTwo Theories of Literacy Development1395 Words   |  6 PagesIn this task I am going to identify 2 different theories of language development I am going to be doing, Naom Chomsky and Jean Piaget. Jean Piaget According to Piaget, language development is related to cognitive development, that is, the development of the child’s thinking determines when the child can learn to speak and what the child can say. For example, before a child can say, â€Å"This teddy is smaller than that one†, she/he must have developed the ability to judge differences in size.Read MoreLanguage and Literacy Development1014 Words   |  5 PagesRUNNGHEAD: LANGUAGE AND LITERACY DEVELOPMENT ESSAY Language and Literacy Development Essay Alma J. Bosket Early Literacy Development (O101) -ECH-425 Dr. Leah Barley July 21, 2013 Language and Literacy Essay The achievement of oral language is a normal development for the performance of most children. The child’s (ren) understanding to communicate will began to increase with ageRead MoreDevelopment Of Literacy For Students902 Words   |  4 PagesThe development of literacy for students in pre-K through 1st grade all need a basic understanding of letter recognition, knowing phonics, and the difference between vowel sounds when they are long and short. Once these skills are established progression will be made with the introduction of diphthongs and blends. Ways that allow students to learn these basics without losing interest with posters and reads alouds is incorporating interactive videos such as LeapFrog where it draws the students inRead MoreReflection On The Literacy Development1791 Words   |  8 Pages Reflections As future educators, it is important that we understand and become consciously aware that phonological awareness is an essential aspect of the emergent literacy development. The comprehension of phonological awareness is critical for learning to read any alphabetic writing system. For this assignment, we chose to implement a word awareness, rhyming, and alliteration activity in our typically developing service learning classes. Also, we incorporated phonics throughout these activitiesRead MoreChildrens Emergent Literacy Development1395 Words   |  6 Pagessignificantly impacts a child’s emergent literacy development. (Senechal, Lefevre, Thomas , Daley, 1996; Sawyer, et al., 2014; Sà ©nà ©chal LeFevre, 2002; Senechal LaFevre, 2014). HLE is defined by the â€Å"frequency of storybook reading and literacy teaching during book reading† (Sawyer, et al., 2014, p. 65). Sà ©nà ©chal LeFevre (2002 2014) conducted a study to prove that a positive and helpful HLE aid s in children’s emergent literacy. The Home Literacy Model used proved the original hypothesis

Assisted Suicide - Introduction - 1878 Words

Introduction/Rationale No person is entitled to consent to have death inflicted on him, and such consent does not affect the criminal responsibility of any person by whom death may be inflicted on the person by whom consent is given.†, this is according to the Indiana Code of Criminal Law and Procedure. In ancient days, assisted suicide was frequently seen as a way to preserve one’s honor. For the past twenty-five years, on the other hand, the practice has been viewed as a response to the progress of modern medicine. New and often expensive medical technologies have been developed that prolong life. However, the technologies also prolong the dying processes, leading some people to question whether modern medicine is forcing†¦show more content†¦The other person simply helps for example, providing the means for carrying out the action. In the US, only the State of Oregon permits assisted suicide or physician-assisted suicide. The Oregon Death with Dignity Act allows terminally ill state residents to receive prescriptions for self-administered lethal medications from their physicians. It does not permit euthanasia, in which a physician or other person directly administers a medication to a patient in order to end his or her life. The Oregon law allows adults with terminal diseases who are likely to die within 6 months to obtain lethal doses of drugs from their doctors. A relatively very small number of people sought lethal drugs under the law and even fewer people who actually used them. Many patients have said that what they want most is a choice about how their lives will end, a finger on the remote control, as it were. Like for instance, the case of Diane, one of the patients of Dr. Timothy Quill. She was diagnosed with acute myelomonocytic leukemia and she was under Dr. Quill for a period of 8 years. Dr. Quill informed her of the diagnosis, and of the possible treatments. The series of treatments include multiple sessions of chemotherapy and bone marrow transplant, accompanied by an array of ancillaryShow MoreRelatedAssisted Suicide - Introduction to Ethics Social Responsibility2678 Words   |  11 PagesPhysician Assisted Suicide Brandon Tucky SOC120: Introduction to Ethics amp; Social Responsibility Carrie Quiza April 27, 2012 Physician Assisted Suicide Physician assisted suicide has been an ethically intense subject to many people for decades. The U.S. sees this as an illegal and immoral way to end one’s life while many other countries find it is perfectly legal and moral. The determination of its true standing is one that will probably take many more decades to fully understand. Read MoreAssisted Suicide - Introduction1887 Words   |  8 PagesIntroduction/Rationale No person is entitled to consent to have death inflicted on him, and such consent does not affect the criminal responsibility of any person by whom death may be inflicted on the person by whom consent is given.†, this is according to the Indiana Code of Criminal Law and Procedure. In ancient days, assisted suicide was frequently seen as a way to preserve one’s honor. For the past twenty-five years, on the other hand, the practice has been viewed as a response to the progressRead MoreEuthanasia And Physician Assisted Suicide. Introduction.1672 Words   |  7 Pages Euthanasia and Physician Assisted Suicide Introduction Euthanasia is when a patient suffering from a disease that cannot be cured is helped to die in a painless manner. Doctors help in such cases to kill patients without feeling much pain. 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Introduction Physician Assisted Suicide has been a very controversial topic in the recent years. P.A.S can also be known as physician assisted death or euthanasia. Many states wonder wither this practice is morally right or wrong. Physician Assisted Suicide is when a doctor administers patient lethal drugs, upon the request of the patient, with the end result being deathRead MorePhysician Assisted Death As A Person s Ethno Cultural Identity1673 Words   |  7 Pagesas physician assisted-death is, it is also one of great merit that offers an opportunity to explore a better understanding of the human experience. Physician assisted-death is often coupled with the term euthanasia and although it can be seen as a form of euthanasia, it differs in that the patient is in the control of the process through which they commit the act of suicide. In the consideration of the role of a human service professional during the procedure that is physician assisted-death (PAD)Read MoreThe Need for the Legalizatio n of Physician-Assisted Suicide2485 Words   |  10 Pagesprevent death. Many people turn to a procedure known as Physician-Assisted suicide, a process by which a doctor aids in ending a terminally ill patient’s life. This procedure is painless and effective, allowing patients to control their death and alleviate unnecessary suffering. In spite of these benefits, Physician-Assisted suicide is illegal in many places both nationally and internationally. Despite the fact that Physician-Assisted suicide is opposed by many Americans and much of the world on ethicalRead MoreThe Bill Of Rights : The Amendment Rights2572 Words   |  11 Pages1 . Introduction In 1791, the Bill of Rights was created to specify the individual rights of every human being. Madison James is the creator of the 10 Amendments, he believed it was necessary to create the document to further explain what the Constitution will provide for each person. The Bill of Rights gives every citizen the right to freedom of religion, freedom of speech, as well as the freedom of the press, and lastly the due process rights. This document was formed when the Constitution inRead MoreEuthanasia Is Not A Bad Thing2331 Words   |  10 Pagesis to inform the reader in order to/so that euthanasia isn’t a bad thing it could help many people but there should still be restrictions. The author write in a formal tone for the American Studies English teachers at Granite Hills High School. Introduction Five years ago, Joe was a retired landscaper and a loving father and grandpa. Joe was a very active man only wanting the best for himself. Everyday he would wake up make himself a healthy breakfast, go on a walk and take his grandchildren to

Securities and Investments Commission v Citigroup Global Markets

Question: Discuss about the Securities and Investments Commission v Citigroup Global Markets. Answer: Introduction Citigroup Global Market is a financial services company operating in Australia and carries out its business in circa 100 countries. It is the defendant in the proceedings of Australian Securities and Investments Commission v Citigroup Global Markets Australia Pty Ltd (Citigroup). Citigroup Inc. participates on various businesses in Australia. For example, it participates in the Corporate and Investment Bank (CIB), which is a company known internally. In turn, CIB has many operating divisions such as the Investment Banking Division (IBD) and Equities, among many others. The IBD delivers advisory and investment banking services. Equities, on the other hand, engage in proprietary security trading (Liptak Goldstein, 2016). The issue in the ASIC v Citigroup, therefore, is how the association between a customer and the investment bank came under an equitable microscope. The bank was giving advisory services based on a planned purchasing bid to this client. However, the primary question in the case is if the letter of engagement for retaining a bank by a great public organization to talk about the takeover bid left out the presence of any fiduciary association between the bank and its customers (Black, Mills Cox, 2007). Following the issue in this proceeding, this paper begins with an overview of the ASIC v Citigroup case, outlines the breached duties, and goes on to look into some more details of the Court's decision and the reasons for it given the Corporation Act. Background of the Case On August 8, 2005, the Investment Banking Division got reserved by a subsidiary of an Australia firm known as Toll Holdings Limited (Toll) to be able to offer banking and commercial services. These services were to take place in connection with proposed takeover of another listed company known as Patrick Corporation Limited by Toll Holdings. Toll wanted to use Patrick as means through which it can use to access ports logistic market. It was a significant transaction that traded at AUD 4.5 billion. The parties that got involved were highly sophisticated. In response to these services, Toll selected two venture banks to provide it with advice in connection with the bid. One of the banks was Citigroup while the other one was the Carnegie Co Pty Limited. According to the terms of retainer execution done on 8th August, the charges for the fruitful completion of the purchase from the Citigroup IBD were likely to range between AUD 10 to 18 Million. On the other hand, Equities and IBD of the Citigroup divisions got detached by the precise data and other obstacles recognized in the commercial segment as the Chinese walls (Kennedy, 2009). Those staffs who got employed on the IBD side were working in the private department of the Chinese walls due to being routinely possessing a secret sensitive information concerning securities such as information about the intentions of Toll in connection to Patrick. Additionally, those employees who were operating in the public department of the wall were in the Equities division. The main reason for the Chinese wall was to prevent Citigroup from breaching the rules regarded as insider trading laws in Australia, by doing business with the Equities section of the Patrick shares through the IBD department. Such activity was considered as private information about Patrick. On Friday 19th August 2005, a trader in Citigroup's equities section obtained a huge part of Patrick's share. Nobody suggested that, when he purchased the shares, the buyer already had information about the proposed bid of Toll on behalf Patrick. Instead, the buyer appears to have been following how the price was moving in relation to Patricks price. The trader's response to the movements of the price reflected broad market assumption concerning the possibility of Patrick as the topic of a purchaser. When it reaches mid-day of the same day, the broker had already had a long, considerable share in Patrick. On the other hand, Patrick's value had reasonably appreciated. At 3.30pm, somebody who was guiding the broker called him aside and discussed with him shortly telling him to stop purchasing the shares of Patrick. After that discussion, the dealer went back in the dealing and put on sale some of his positions. As the events unfold, the bid that Toll had for Patrick got announced on subsequent following business day, in this case, on Monday 22 August 2005. Otherwise, under standard practice, Toll trading in Patrick shares bid got inspected by the investigation department of the Australian Security Exchange Limited, in which they witnessed the exchange on which the bid got listed (Standen Angus-Smith, 2009, p.607). The Australia Security Exchange checked whether there was a likelihood of any insider trading in Patrick by the Citigroup. After that, they forwarded the concern to ASIC for further investigation. ASIC started its investigations touching Citigroup towards the end of 2005 but completed early 2006. ASIC began the trials touching Citigroup in 2006. Duties and Responsibilities Breached Though the ASIC did not claim that Equities Trading was aware of the insider information as it was buying the shares, its stand was that; the Citigroup as Tolls advisor was in a fiduciary affiliation in one way or the other (Benard, 2007). ASIC alleged that it breached its fiduciary duty when it purchased shares in Patrick, thus contravened its responsibilities under 912A(1) provision of the Corporations Act. Moreover, Citigroup violated the rules of section 12DA of the ASIC Act together with Section 1043 of the Corporation Act. These sections prohibit false and deceiving behavior referred as Fiduciary Claim (Hanrahan, n.d.). The further allegation was that Citigroup contravened the insider trading laws that are in section 1043A of the Corporation Act. First, the Equities Trading had an assumption that alleged that Citigroup was representing Toll in the anticipated buyout of Patrick (Hastings Marjoribanks, 2012, p.544). This assumption came out due to what ET heard after Investment Bank realized the potential conflict (Citigroup Inc. 2008). On the other hand, ASIC suspected that this assumption composed of information in the definition of 'Division 3 financial products under section 1042A of the Corporative Act. It got argued that the sale of the 200,000 shares had constituted insider business by Citigroup, thus making it the first Insider Trading Claim (Hastings Marjoribanks, 2012, p.542). It was also because the ASIC realized the challenges in the second claim that Chinese Walls Citigroup had in place. ASIC allegation was that, because the senior IB staff had the knowledge about a substantial likelihood that Toll was going to launch its tender, that acquaintance was accredited to the entire Citigroup. Therefore, ASIC suspected Citigroup to have engaged in insider trading since its shares got purchased by the Citigroups Equities division, thus making the allegation to be additional Insider Trading Claim. Decision of the Court According to the Federal Court of Australia on Thursday 28 June 2007 about ASIC v. Citigroup case, was that Citigroup did not take part in insider trading and did not contravene the conflict of interest laws according to the Corporations Act (Jacobson, 2007; 'Australia Banking' 2015, p.104). It found that Citigroup did not contravene its responsibilities under s 1043A, s 1043H and s 912A(1)(aa) of the Corporations Act and s 12DA of the ASIC Act. Therefore, the Court dismisses the claims by ASIC about Citigroups breach of duties. The first Insider Trading Claim failed. This claim could only do well if the trading employee possessed the insider information and attributed his knowledge to the company. According to section 1042G(1)(a), the awareness of the staff got not associated to the enterprise unless the employee was an officer defined by section 9 of the law (Jacobson, 2007). Therefore, the Court did not come to an agreement with ASIC because the employee in question was not an officer of Citigroup (Seeto, 2008). According to the Act, an officer was a person with a senior role in management, unlike the employee in the ASIC v Citigroup case. Moreover, the Court found that the employee did not make the supposition of the takeover bid according to what ASIC claimed that Citigroup acted in place of Toll regarding Patrick's acquisition. The second Insider Trading Claim also did not succeed. According to the Courts findings, Citigroup adhered to section 1043F of the Act. It proved to the Court that it had put in place some compliance arrangements. It raised the Chinese Wall Defense in a satisfactory manner (Jacobson, 2007). It implies that the Company complied as it would be anticipated to make sure that the price sensitive data according to IB got not revealed to the Public Side employees or communicated with ET (Lumsden Bridgen, 2007, p.37). Besides, the choice to buy shares came from a person rather than the individuals who held the information and no communication of it concerning the purchase got given by IB (Seeto, 2008). The Fiduciary Claim also failed right at the beginning. This finding was so, because, the letter of engagement did not involve the existence of the fiduciary association. According to the Court, the Corporation Act did not hinder the bank from having a fiduciary duty when it started its connection with its clients (07-171 Decision, 2007; 'Australia Banking' 2015, p.62). In addition to these findings, there were also compliance implications regarding the Chinese walls, written policies and procedures for training, and the escalation procedures. In relation to the issue of the Chinese Walls, the verdict was that the arrangements to fulfill the law did not call for total perfection. Instead, it needed only the necessary steps. As a result, it came up with the following steps for an efficient Chinese wall: departments physical separation, educational programs, crossing the wall, observation from acquiescence officers, and finally the corrective sanctions. Besides, the Court found that Citigroup had its procedures in place (Citigroup Inc. 2007). For example, the company called for the IB not to spread the material information that is not meant for the public to the ET without having the right individuals to assess the informations materiality. In addition to that, Citigroup had a precise escalation policy to help IB advice the necessary people of the pot ential conflict. However, Jacobsons decision does not alter the people's recognition of the right stand of how banks that do investment provide advisory services to its customers. Nonetheless, the findings are meant to be of significance to everyone including the corporate advisers. For example, the decision allows likeness on the fiduciary obligations and how they are related to the other unbiased and entrepreneurial law requirements such as the requirement of good faith and confidence (Batten Pearson, 2013, p.520; Benard, 2007). If the Honours decision had been otherwise, the international investment banking communitys concerns that the Australian controller had distressed many entities by merging consulting businesses with those of equities trading could also get noticed ('Australia Banking' 2015, p.84). Rather, Jacobsons findings have proven that his act is not forbidden by equity, as long as the banks and the customers association with that of the company of the conglomerates business kowtows t o some particular convictions. Conclusion Therefore, the case ASIC v Citigroup is relevant to advisers and Australias commercial services regulation. When the case against Citigroup started, it appears as if ASIC did not care about protecting Toll's interests. If it wanted to protest about the copyrighted trading of Citigroup in the shares of Patrick, Toll would presumably do so on its own due to the sufficient resources. In fact, the Courts judgment shows that Toll did not have any complaint to present to Court. The CFO of Toll revealed that Toll comprehended that Citigroup would take part in copyrighted trading without opposition so long as the company did not employ Tolls private data wrongfully. Thus, it illustrates that according to the provisions of the insider trading; an adequate compliance system is relevant since it can help a company and its members from being held liable for a claim. Aside from that, the fact that Chinese Walls restrain the information from flowing between different divisions in a company, an org anization can avoid damaging its reputation and substantial fines if it complies with to the requirements of the Chinese wall. References 07-171 Decision in ASIC v Citigroup | ASIC - Australian Securities and Investments Commission. (2007). Asic.gov.au. Retrieved 6 January 2017, from https://asic.gov.au/about-asic/media-centre/find-a-media-release/2007-releases/07-171-decision-in-asic-v-citigroup/ 'AUSTRALIA BANKING' 2015, Acquisdata Industry Snapshots: Australia Banking, 3601, pp. 1-87. 'AUSTRALIA BANKING' 2016, Acquisdata Industry Snapshots: Australia Banking, 6604, pp. 1-108. Batten, R, Pearson, G 2013, 'Financial Advice In Australia: Principles To Proscription; Managing To Banning,' St. John's Law Review, 87, 2/3, pp. 511-559. Benard, M. (2007). McCabe, Bernard --- "ASIC v Citigroup and fiduciary obligations" [2007] BondCGeJl 5; (2007) Corporate Governance eJournal (Bond). [online] Austlii.edu.au. Available at: https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/ElderLRev/2007/5.html [Accessed 14 Jan. 2017]. Black, A, Mills, K, Cox, B 2007, 'A big win for banks,' International Financial Law Review, 26, 9, p. 12. Citigroup Inc. (2007). Mergent's Dividend Achievers, 4(4), pp.60. Citigroup Inc. (2008). Mergent's Dividend Achievers, 5(2), pp.60. Hanrahan, P. (n.d.). ASIC v Citigroup: Investment banks, conflicts of interest, and Chinese walls. 1st ed. [ebook] unimelb.edu, pp.1 - 25. Available at: https://law.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/1709837/67-Hanrahan_-_ASIC_v_Citigroup1.pdf [Accessed 14 Jan. 2017]. Hastings, L, Marjoribanks, G 2012, 'Tough on crime -- insider trading enforcement and its relevance to you,' Keeping Good Companies (14447614), 64, 9, pp. 542-544. Jacobson, J. (2007). Australian Securities and Investments Commission v Citigroup Global Markets. Australia Pty Limited (ACN 113 114 832) 2007 (pp. 1-130). Sydney. Retrieved from https://www.smh.com.au/pdf/ASICvCitigroup.pdf Kennedy, C 2009, 'ASIC holds Citigroup to account for credit products,' Money Management, 23, 46, p. 4. Liptak, A, Goldstein, M 2016, 'Supreme Court Sides With Prosecutors in an Insider Trading Case,' New York Times. Lumsden, A, Bridges, V 2007, 'Chinese Walls Lessons from the Citigroup case,' In finance, 121, 4, pp. 36-38. Seeto, G. (2008). ASIC v Citigroup - The compliance implications - Knowledge - Clayton Utz. Claytonutz.com. Retrieved 6 January 2017, from https://www.claytonutz.com/knowledge/2008/january/asic-v-citigroup-the-compliance-implications Standen, M, Angus-Smith, R 2009, 'ASX and ASIC -- the changing of the guard,' Keeping Good Companies (14447614), 61, 10, pp. 606-608.

Psyschology Study On Drinking Essays - Stress, Human Behavior

Psyschology Study on Drinking Abstract In response to the need for research that incorporates multiple aspects of theory into a testable framework, this study attempted to replicate and extend the results of Cooper, Russell, Skinner, Frone, and Mudar (1992). A modified stressor vulnerability model of stress-related drinking was tested in a homogeneous sample of 65 male and female undergraduate student drinkers. Total weekly consumption of alcohol was used as the criterion measure, whereas family history of alcoholism (Adapted SMAST: Sher & Descutner, 1986), alcohol outcome expectancies/valences (CEOA: Fromme, Stroot, & Kaplan, 1993), perceived stress (PSS: Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983), and coping dispositions (COPE: Carver, Scheier, The proposed modified model postulates that expectancies play a proximal mediating role in stress-related drinking, whereas gender, family history of alcoholism, and coping all play a distal moderating role. Hierarchical multiple regression procedures were then performed to evaluate the model. The results failed to support the hypothesized model. Specifically, expectancies emerged as a distal rather than proximal predictor of stress-related drinking, and family history of alcoholism did not moderate stress-related drinking. In contrast, gender and coping styles emerged as the most powerful predictors in the model. Despite the shortcomings of the proposed model, the present results offer an alternative interpretation as to what constitutes the stressor vulnerability model of stress-related drinking. Introduction Stress as a Causal Factor in Drinking One of the common stereotypes about the effects of alcohol involves the drug's capacity to act as a stress antagonist. Conger (1956) has proposed a theory, known as the tension reduction hypothesis (TRH) of drinking, to support this notion. Essentially the theory holds that alcohol's sedative action on the central nervous system serves to reduce tension, and because tension reduction is reinforcing, people drink to escape it (Marlatt Strong evidence to support the validity of the theory comes from epidemiological findings which indicate that the prevalence of anxiety disorders in alcoholics ranges from 16 to 37%, compared to a rate of only 4-5% in the general population (Welte, 1985). Notwithstanding, there seems to be a subset of people for whom the predictions of the TRH do not hold. For instance, in a study conducted by Conway, Vickers, Ward, and Rahe (1981) it was found that the consumption of alcohol among Navy officers during periods of high job demands was actually lower than the consumption during low-demand periods. In addition, other studies (i.e., Mayfield, 1968; Mendlson, Ladou, & Soloman, 1964) have shown that some drinkers actually consider alcohol as a tension generator rather than a tension reducer. Overall, when taking into account these conflicting findings, it seems prudent to find some middle ground. The solution to this problem than is a modified version of the TRH, specifying the conditions under which stress will lead to an increase in drinking. Moderating and Mediating Factors in Stress Induced Drinking In addition to stress, several other variables have been shown to be crucial in determining an individual's drinking behavior. These variables include gender of drinker (gender), coping behavior of drinker (coping), and alcohol outcome expectancies of drinker (expectancies). In the following discussion, the importance of each of these variables to drinking will be considered first, followed by an evaluation of these as potential moderators or mediators of stress in drinking. 1 Differential Gender Drinking Behavior It has been repeatedly demonstrated that significant differences exist between the drinking patterns of men and women (Hilton, 1988). In a comprehensive survey of US drinking habits conducted by the US National Center for Health Statistics in 1988, significant gender differences were found in three areas as pointed out by Dawson and Archer (1992). The first significant difference pertained to the number of male and female current drinkers. Roughly 64% of all men were current drinkers in comparison to 41% of all women. The second and third significant differences concerned the quantity of alcohol consumed. Men were more likely to (a) consume alcohol on a daily basis and (b) be classified as heavy drinkers. Men's daily average of ethanol intake (17.5 grams per day) was almost twice as high as women's (8.9 grams per day). Even when an adjustment for body weight was made